Recently cleared land is best avoided to help resist the root rot, Armillaria mellia. [66] Sun exposure [ edit ] Chestnuts belong to the family Fagaceae, which also includes oaks and beeches. The four main species groups are commonly known as American, [8] European, Chinese, and Japanese chestnuts. Hydrolysable chestnut tannins can be used for partial phenol substitution in phenolic resin adhesives production [115] and also for direct use as resin. [116]

Leaf spot is the most common disease for chestnut trees ( Mycosphaerella maculiformis). It is known as cylindrosporium leaf spot disease, after its summer conidium form Cylindrosporium castaneae. The pathogens spend the winter in the white spots of the fallen leaves. At spring time, it reinfects the new leaves. In or near June, tiny white spots on the leaves appear, which grow and turn brown over time. At the end of the summer, the spots entirely cover the leaf, which turns yellow. In rainy and humid weather with large temperature fluctuation, the tree loses its leaves. If August is dry and warm, the infected leaves roll up, the arteries twist, and the dead leaves dry on the tree until defoliage. This recurs yearly, though the extent of the damage varies from year to year. Some species are more resistant than others. [85] Root rot is caused by the honey fungus Armillaria mellia. When planting Castanea, recently cleared land is best avoided to help resist this fungus. [66] The disease is more prevalent on heavier and poorly drained soil types. [7] The Cambridge World History of Food – Chestnuts. Edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas. The unrelated horse chestnuts (genus Aesculus) are not true chestnuts, but are named for producing nuts of similar appearance that are mildly poisonous to humans. True chestnuts should also not be confused with water chestnuts, which are tubers of an aquatic herbaceous plant in the sedge family Cyperaceae. [4] [5] Lambic and the spontaneous fermentation". Cantillon.be. Cantillon. Archived from the original on 6 November 2014 . Retrieved 2 June 2015.D. S. Vohra (1 June 2004). Bach Flower Remedies: A Comprehensive Study. B. Jain Publishers. p.3. ISBN 978-81-7021-271-3 . Retrieved 2 September 2013. Antoine Parmentier. Traité de la châtaigne. 1780. Bastia, Corsica. Cited in The Cambridge World History of Food – Chestnuts, edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas. Oak mildew is among several foliage diseases of smaller significance for European chestnut growing. It infects the most trees ( Microsphaera alphitoides). Younger trees suffer most; their shoots become short-jointed, growth is delayed, and they develop sensitivity to frostbite. In older trees, the fungus usually infects only the tip of the shoots. The pathogens hibernate in the shoots and infect the leaves from there. The fungus grows on the top of the leaves, with the appearance of a coating only in midsummer. The infected leaves' development slows down or stops, the distance between their vessels shrinks, and the vessels themselves become curly. [85] a b c d e f g "University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry, 2005 – This report describes findings from a 2004 nationwide survey of the U.S. chestnut market" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-09-10 . Retrieved 2008-08-14. Chestnut is of the same family as oak, and likewise its wood contains many tannins. [38] This renders the wood very durable, [38] gives it excellent natural outdoor resistance, [38] [105] and saves the need for other protection treatment. It also corrodes iron slowly, although copper, brass, or stainless metals are not affected. [105]

The fruit inside these shows a germ with two cotyledons connected to creamy-white flesh throughout,. [5] Some varieties have consistently only one embryo per fruit (nut) or have only one large fruit per burr, well rounded (no flat face). The name of varieties with these characteristics may start with "marron" [11] for example marron de Lyon in France, or Marrone di Mugello in Italy. Stefano Mazzoleni (2004). Recent Dynamics of the Mediterranean Vegetation and Landscape. John Wiley & Sons. p.145. ISBN 9780470093702. In the coastal areas, the olive groves are tightly interwoven with low maquis, garrigue and steppe, which have been widely grazed and, consequently, burned. On the other hand, low mountains and inland hills have chestnut and mixed deciduous coppiced woods. The actual boundaries between these two different vegetation landscapes can be found at different altitudes according to local climatic conditions; higher (about 1000m asl) in the eastern and southern areas, and lower and close to the sea in the central and northern basin. Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses. By D. Bown. Dorling Kindersley, London. 1995 ISBN 0-7513-0203-1. Ví dụ: Edible plants for your pond include watercress, water chestnuts , and arrowhead or Wapato.De Guzman, Virginia Roces; Puyat, Nina Daza (1990). The Philippine Cookbook. Bookmark. p.31. ISBN 9789711341107. Chestnut wood is a useful source of natural tannin and was used for tanning leather before the introduction of synthetic tannins. [60] On a 10% moisture basis, the bark contains 6.8% tannin and the wood 13.4%. [108] The bark imparts a dark color to the tannin, and has a higher sugar content, which increases the percentage of soluble non-tans, or impurities, in the extract; so it was not employed in this use. [109] Chestnut tannin is obtained by hot-water extraction of chipped wood. It is an ellagic tannin and its main constituents are identified by castalagin (14.2%) and vescalagin (16.2%). [110] [111] The wood seems to reach its highest tannin content after the trees reach 30 years old. The southern European chestnut wood usually contains at least 10 to 13% more tannin than chestnut trees in northern climates.

The name "chestnut" is derived from an earlier English term "chesten nut", which descends from the Old French word chastain (Modern French, châtaigne). [12] The French word in turn derives from Latin Castanea (also the scientific name of the tree), which traces to the Ancient Greek word κάστανον (sweet chestnut). [13] A possible source of the Greek word is the ancient town of Casthanaea in Magnesia. [14] Its location is at the modern village of Keramidi. [15] [16] The town probably took its name, though, from the trees growing around it. [17] In the Mediterranean climate zone, chestnut trees are rarer in Greece because the chalky soil is not conducive to the tree's growth. Kastania is located on one of the relatively few sedimentary or siliceous outcrops. They grow so abundantly there that their presence would have determined the place's name. [18] Still others take the name as coming from the Greek name of Sardis glans (Sardis acorn) – Sardis being the capital of Lydia, Asia Minor, from where the fruit had spread. [19] Chestnuts produce a better crop when subjected to chill temperatures during the dormant period. Frosts and snowfalls are beneficial rather than harmful to the trees. [5] [66] The dormant plant is very cold-hardy in Britain, [71] to the Royal Horticultural Society's H6 hardiness rating, to -20°C. [72] Chestnut is hardy to USDA zone 5, which is −29°C (−20°F) lower in average minimal temperature than London in zone 9. [73] The young growth in spring, even on mature plants, however, is frost-tender; [71] [73] bud-burst is later than most other fruit trees, so late frosts can be damaging to young buds. [66]

Threats and conservation

Ví dụ: Deep-frozen eyeballs might have the same consistency, somewhere between a water chestnut and a lychee; a cavernous void would have had more flavour. The superior fruiting varieties among European chestnuts have good size, sweet taste, and easy-to-remove inner skins. [32] [33] American chestnuts are usually very small (around 5 g), but sweet-tasting with easy-to-remove pellicles. Some Japanese varieties have very large nuts (around 40 g), with typically difficult-to-remove pellicles. Chinese chestnut pellicles are usually easy to remove, and their sizes vary greatly according to the varieties, although usually smaller than the Japanese chestnut. [7] History [ edit ] Eurasia [ edit ]