Richards, Jeffrey (1999). "From Christianity to Paganism: The New Middle Ages and the Values of 'Medieval' Masculinity". Cultural Values. 3 (2): 213–234. doi: 10.1080/14797589909367162. Tacitus presented the Germanic warrior Arminius as a masculine hero in his account of ancient Germany whose already violent nature was further heightened by the abduction of his beloved wife Thusnelda by the Roman general Germanicus. In his rage Arminius demanded war against the Roman empire. [26] [27] [28] [29] Medieval and Victorian eras [ edit ] Beowulf fighting the dragon It stands on record that armies already wavering and on the point of collapse have been rallied by the women, pleading heroically with their men, thrusting forward their bared bosoms, and making them realize the imminent prospect of enslavement - a fate which the Germans fear more desperately for their women than for themselves." -Tacitus (Germania) [25]

During the Victorian era, masculinity underwent a transformation from traditional heroism. Scottish philosopher Thomas Carlyle wrote in 1831: "The old ideal of Manhood has grown obsolete, and the new is still invisible to us, and we grope after it in darkness, one clutching this phantom, another that; Werterism, Byronism, even Brummelism, each has its day". [32] Scholars have debated the extent to which gender identity and gender-specific behaviors are due to socialization versus biological factors. [4] :29 [41] [42] Social and biological influences are thought to be mutually interacting during development. [4] :29 [3] :218–225 Studies of prenatal androgen exposure have provided some evidence that femininity and masculinity are partly biologically determined. [2] :8–9 [3] :153–154 Other possible biological influences include evolution, genetics, epigenetics, and hormones (both during development and in adulthood). [4] :29–31 [2] :7–13 [3] :153–154 Scholars suggest that innate differences between the sexes are compounded or exaggerated by the influences of social factors. [43] [44] [45] However, others have pointed to the fact that personality differences between the sexes are seen to increase with increased levels of egalitarianism. [46] Social construction of masculinity [ edit ]

References

Also available as: Simpson, Mark (1993). Male impersonators: men performing masculinity. London: Cassell. ISBN 9780304328086. Halberstam, Judith. In a Queer Time and Place: Transgender Bodies, Subcultural Lives. New York: New York University Press, 2005. ISBN 0-8147-3584-3& 0814735851 In Female Masculinity (1998), Halberstam seeks to identify what constitutes masculinity within society and the individual. The text first suggests that masculinity is a construction that promotes particular brands of male-ness while at the same time subordinating "alternative masculinities." The project specifically focuses on the ways female masculinity has been traditionally ignored in academia and society at large. To illustrate a cultural mechanism of subordinating alternative masculinities, Halberstam brings up James Bond and GoldenEye as an example, noting that gender performance in this film is far from what is traditional: M is the character who "most convincingly performs masculinity," Bond can only perform masculinity through his suave clothing and gadgets, and Q can be read "as a perfect model of the interpenetration of queer and dominant regimes." This interpretation of these characters challenges long-held ideas about what qualities create masculinity. [6] Halberstam also brings up the example of the tomboy, a clear case of a youthful girl exerting masculine qualities—and raises the complication that within a youthful figure, the idea of masculinity expressed within a female body is less threatening, and only becomes threatening when those masculine tendencies are still apparent as the child progresses in age.

See also: Jones, Darianna (9 July 2014). "An open letter to gay guys who look down on 'Fem Guys' ". The Good Men Project . Retrieved 6 March 2015. Lindsey, Linda L. (2015). Gender Roles: A Sociological Perspective. Routledge. p.70. ISBN 978-1-31-734808-5. Halberstam, Judith (2004). " 'Female masculinity' ". In Kimmel, Michael S.; Aronson, Amy (eds.). Men and Masculinities: A Social, Cultural, and Historical Encyclopedia, Volume 1. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-CLIO. pp.294–5. ISBN 978-1-57-607774-0. The academic study of masculinity received increased attention during the late 1980s and early 1990s, with the number of courses on the subject in the United States rising from 30 to over 300. [14] This has sparked investigation of the intersection of masculinity with concepts from other fields, such as the social construction of gender difference [15] (prevalent in a number of philosophical and sociological theories). Curry, Tyler (1 October 2013). "The strength in being a feminine gay man". The Huffington Post . Retrieved 6 March 2015.Levtov, Ruti Galia; Barker, Gary; Contreras-Urbina, Manuel; Heilman, Brian; Verma, Ravi (6 November 2014). "Pathways to Gender-equitable Men: Findings from the International Men and Gender Equality Survey in Eight Countries". Men and Masculinities. 17 (5): 467–501. doi: 10.1177/1097184X14558234. S2CID 145452643.