Several epidemiologic studies have documented an association of chronic low-level cadmium exposure with decreases in bone mineral density and osteoporosis [ 97– 99]. Diet, for most individuals, is the largest source of exposure, with an average intake of about 50 µg per day. The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with an overall lower alloy content than similar-performing super-austenitic grades, making their use cost-effective for many applications. They are characterized by higher chromium (19–32%) and molybdenum (up to 5%) and lower nickel contents than austenitic stainless steels. DNA strand breaks in peripheral lymphocytes and lipid peroxidation products in urine observed in chromium-exposed workers also support the evidence of Cr (VI)-induced toxicity to humans [ 155, 156].

Stainless steel is a steel, and as such its melting point is near that of ordinary steel, and much higher than the melting points of aluminium or copper. A wide range of joining processes are available for stainless steels, though welding is by far the most common.The addition of chromium remains the most common method to increase high-temperature corrosion resistance in stainless steels; chromium reacts with oxygen to form a chromium oxide scale, which reduces oxygen diffusion into the material.

This microstructure is present at all temperatures due to the chromium addition, so they are not capable of being hardened by heat treatment.These can be used in cookware, cutlery, surgical instruments, major appliances, vehicles, construction material in large buildings, industrial equipment (e.