Crawford, Gary W. and Gyoung-Ah Lee. Agricultural Origins in the Korean Peninsula. Antiquity 77(295):87–95, 2003. In Benue, our correspondent said millers have expressed mixed feelings over the rising prices of paddy in the face of its fair scarcity. Currently, sustainability is becoming an essential aim in the world (Chang et al. 2016). Sustainability has three pillars including economic, environmental, and social aspects. Enhancement of social condition can increase human well-being (UNEP 2009). Social life cycle assessment (S-LCA) is a technique for evaluating social performances of products throughout their life cycle (UNEP 2009).

By the late Neolithic (3500 to 2500 BC), population in the rice cultivating centers had increased rapidly, centered around the Qujialing- Shijiahe and Liangzhu cultures. There was also evidence of intensive rice cultivation in paddy fields as well as increasingly sophisticated material cultures in these two regions. The number of settlements among the Yangtze cultures and their sizes increased, leading some archeologists to characterize them as true states, with clearly advanced socio-political structures. However, it is unknown if they had centralized control. [18] [19] Budget-Friendly: Rice is an affordable and cost-effective food option, making it accessible to a wide range of people. It can be a staple food that provides nourishment and sustenance without straining the budget. Rice production in Thailand represents a significant portion of the Thai economy. It uses over half of the farmable land area and labor force in Thailand. [45]

About

Mollafilabi A (2019) Comparison of environmental impacts for rice (Oryza sativa L.) agroecosystems in the first and second planting patters by using Life Cycle Assessment (case study: Sari County). Agroecology 10:

There are three main types of rice—long-grain, medium-grain, and short-grain—each with its unique characteristics and culinary uses. Prasara-a J, Gheewala SH (2018) Applying social life cycle assessment in the Thai sugar industry : Challenges from the fi eld. J Clean Prod 172:335–346. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2017.10.120 The majority of rice is related to irrigation (1,054,381 ha). The choice of methods conditioning performance is determined by the variety and quality control of water. Aparcana S, Salhofer S (2013) Development of a social impact assessment methodology for recycling systems in low-income countries. Int J Life Cycle Assess 18:1106–1115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-013-0546-8Rice is grown in Myanmar primarily in three areas – the Irrawaddy Delta, the area along and the delta of the Kaladan River, and the Central plains around Mandalay, though there has been an increase in rice farming in Shan State and Kachin State in recent years. [40] Up until the later 1960s, Myanmar was the main exporter of rice. Termed the rice basket of Southeast Asia, much of the rice grown in Myanmar does not rely on fertilizers and pesticides, thus, although "organic" in a sense, it has been unable to cope with population growth and other rice economies which utilized fertilizers.

The result for the workers of rice cultivation showed bad performance in Iran with regarding to health and safety, wage, and worker satisfactory. The result for worker in Malaysia showed good performance in health and safety dimension (87%). Hokazono S, Hayashi K (2015) Life cycle assessment of organic paddy rotation systems using land-and product-based indicators: a case study in Japan. Int J Life Cycle Assess 20:1061–1075 Long Shelf Life: Rice has a long shelf life, especially when stored properly in a cool and dry place. It can be stored for months or even years without losing its nutritional value, making it a convenient and reliable food source. The fields are tilled when the first rains arrive – traditionally measured at 40 days after Thingyan, the Burmese New Year – around the beginning of June. In modern times, tractors are used, but traditionally, buffalos were employed. The rice plants are planted in nurseries and then transplanted by hand into the prepared fields. The rice is then harvested in late November – "when the rice bends with age". Most of the rice planting and harvesting is done by hand. The rice is then threshed and stored, ready for the mills. Devi KS, Ponnarasi T (2010) An Economic Analysis of Modern Rice Production Technology and Its Adoption Behaviour in Tamil Nadu 22:341–347

Chang YJ, Nguyen TD, Finkbeiner M, Krüger J (2016) Adapting ergonomic assessments to social life cycle assessment. Procedia CIRP 40:91–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2016.01.064 a b "Rice strain is cause of comparatively low productivity." The Nation (Thailand) 16 April 2008. 2 February 2009, lexisnexis.com Widespread efforts to implement AWD practices would achieve benefits for the climate, ecosystems, and rice farmers.

This study applied S-LCA based on UNEP (UNEP/SETAC Life Cycle Initiative, 2020) as an evaluation technique to investigate social issues and social performance of paddy rice production in Malaysia and Iran. This research included workers, local communities, and farmers as the stakeholders. The inventory data were collected by using questionnaires. The subcategories for evaluation were adapted from UNEP 2020 guideline. The items in the questionnaire were separately validated by experts in Malaysia and Iran, and the reliability was done by conducting pilot studies in Malaysia and Iran. The questionnaires were distributed by multistage sampling method. The following four steps were conducted following the ISO14040 framework: (1) goal and scope definition, (2) social life cycle inventory analysis (S-LCI), (3) social life cycle impact assessment (S-LCIA), and (4) interpretation. Results and discussion The outcomes of this research provide rich information about the positive and negative social performances of paddy rice production in northern Iran and western Peninsular Malaysia. The finding from this study indicated that the modern agriculture showed better performance for the worker and farmers. Health and safety for local community in modern agriculture showed better performance as a result of low rice residue burning and low air pollution. So the water fills one higher than the rest, then overflows to the next highest and repeats itself over and over. Banaue Rice Terraces of Luzon, Philippines, carved into steep mountainsides Paddy field placed under the valley of Bandung, Indonesia A paddy field with matured rice paddy in Bangladesh Paddy terraces at the feet of Mount Welirang Taro fields ( loʻi) in Hanalei Valley, Kaua'i, Hawaii Paddy fields in Laos Farmers planting rice in Cambodia A paddy field in Binangonan, Rizal, Philippines. Harvesting paddy using machines in Sri Lanka Paddy field after cutting paddy From about 2000 to 1500 BC, the Austronesian expansion began, with settlers from Taiwan moving south to colonize Luzon in the Philippines, bringing rice cultivation technologies with them. From Luzon, Austronesians rapidly colonized the rest of Maritime Southeast Asia, moving westwards to Borneo, the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra; and southwards to Sulawesi and Java. By 500 BC, there is evidence of intensive wetland rice agriculture already established in Java and Bali, especially near very fertile volcanic islands. [9]

Revéret J-P, Couture J-M, Parent J (2015) Socioeconomic LCA of milk production in Canada. In: Social life cycle assessment. Springer, pp 25–69 Fields can be built into steep hillsides as terraces or adjacent to depressed or steeply sloped features such as rivers or marshes. They require a great deal of labor and materials to create and need large quantities of water for irrigation. Oxen and water buffalo, adapted for life in wetlands, are important working animals used extensively in paddy field farming.