Proceedings, of the Worcester Society of Entiquity, Vol. 21 (Classic Reprint)

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Embark on postgraduate study in Classics, Ancient History and Archaeology (CAHA) at the University of Birmingham and become a part of an internationally acclaimed research community. Trajan dies of natural causes. His adopted son Hadrian succeeds him. Hadrian pulls out of Iraq and Armenia. The Roman Empire began to decline in the crisis of the third century. Late antiquity also saw the rise of Christianity under Constantine I, finally ousting the Roman imperial cult with the Theodosian decrees of393. Successive invasions of Germanic tribes finalized the The deposition of human remains in mires extends from the Mesolithic to recent times (van der Sanden Reference van der Sanden, Menotti and O'Sullivan2012: 404). To our knowledge, detailed overviews of long-term trends in the numbers and spatial patterning of finds are unavailable (for some basic trends, see van der Sanden Reference van der Sanden1996). Nonetheless, some chronological peaks and spatial clustering have previously been identified. The earliest dated peak concerns a cluster of skeletal remains from southern Sweden and Denmark, which dates to the fourth millennium BC (Sjögren et al. Reference Sjögren2017; Nielsen & Sørensen Reference Nielsen and Sørensen2018). There is also a concentration of skeletons dating to the later third/early second millennium BC in the English fenlands (Healey & Housley Reference Healey and Housley1992; Roberts Reference Roberts1998). The Iron Age and Roman period, however, are generally perceived as the peak of the ‘bog body phenomenon’, with finds distributed throughout North-west Europe. Medieval and later finds cluster predominantly in Scotland and Ireland (van der Sanden Reference van der Sanden, Menotti and O'Sullivan2012: 404). BC: The second stream of Bantu expansion reaches the great lakes region of Africa, creating a major population centre. [13] [14]

Greece is home to the first advanced civilizations in Europe beginning with the Cycladic civilization on the islands of the Aegean Sea around 3200 BC, [143] and the Minoan civilization in Crete (2700–1500 BC). [144] [145] The Minoans built large palaces decorated with frescoes and wrote in the undeciphered script known as Linear A. The Mycenaean civilization, the first distinctively Greek civilization later emerged on the mainland (1600–1100 BC), consisting of a network of palace-centered states and writing the earliest attested form of Greek with the Linear B script. [145] The Mycenaeans gradually absorbed the Minoans, but collapsed violently around 1200 BC, along with several other civilizations in the eastern Mediterranen, during the regional event known as the Late Bronze Age collapse. [146] This ushered in a period known as the Greek Dark Ages, from which written records are absent. Rawson, Jessica (1999). "Design Systems in Early Chinese Art". Orientations: 52. Archived from the original on 18 October 2020 . Retrieved 18 October 2020.The characteristics of ancient Egyptian technology are indicated by a set of artifacts and customs that lasted for thousands of years. The Egyptians invented and used many basic machines, such as the ramp and the lever, to aid construction processes. The Egyptians also played an important role in developing Mediterranean maritime technology, including ships. [182] The Babylonians and Egyptians were early astronomers who recorded their observations of the night sky. [183] The rise of civilisation corresponded with the institutional sponsorship of belief in gods, supernatural forces and the afterlife. [171] During the Bronze Age, many civilisations adopted their own form of polytheism. Usually, polytheistic Gods manifested human personalities, strengths and failings. Early religion was often based on location, with cities or entire countries selecting a deity, that would grant them preferences and advantages over their competitors. Worship involved the construction of representation of deities, and the granting of sacrifices. Sacrifices could be material goods, food, or in extreme cases human sacrifice to please a deity. [172] New philosophies and religions arose in both east and west, particularly about the 6th century BC. Over time, a great variety of religions developed around the world, with some of the earliest major ones being Hinduism (around 2000 BC), Buddhism (5th century BC), and Jainism (6th century BC) in India, and Zoroastrianism in Persia. The Abrahamic religions trace their origin to Judaism, around 1700 BC. [173] a b World and Its Peoples. Marshall Cavendish. September 2009. p.1458. ISBN 978-0-7614-7902-4 . Retrieved 5 December 2012. Greece was home to the earliest European civilizations, the Minoan civilization of Crete, which developed around 2000 BC, and the Mycenaean civilization on the Greek mainland, which emerged about 400 years later decline of the Western Roman Empire in the 5th century, while the Eastern Roman Empire persisted throughout the Middle Ages, in a state called the Roman Empire by its citizens, and labeled the Byzantine Empire by later historians. Classical antiquity, also known as the classical era, classical period, classical age, or simply classical history or antiquity, [1] is the period of cultural history between the 8th century BC and the 5th century AD [note 1] comprising the interwoven civilizations of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome known together as the Greco-Roman World, centered on the Mediterranean Basin. It is the period in which ancient Greece and ancient Rome flourished and wielded huge influence throughout much of Europe, North Africa, and West Asia. [2] [3]

Israel and Judah were related Iron Age kingdoms of the ancient Levant and had existed during the Iron Ages and the Neo-Babylonian, Persian and Hellenistic periods. The name Israel first appears in the stele of the Egyptian pharaoh Merneptah around 1209BC. [50] This "Israel" was a cultural and probably political entity of the central highlands, well enough established to be perceived by the Egyptians as a possible challenge to their hegemony, but an ethnic group rather than an organised state. [51] The period between the catastrophic end of the Mycenaean civilization and about 900 bce is often called a Dark Age. It was a time about which Greeks of the Classical age had confused and actually false notions. Thucydides, the great ancient historian of the 5th century bce, wrote a sketch of Greek history from the Trojan War to his own day, in which he notoriously fails, in the appropriate chapter, to signal any kind of dramatic rupture. (He does, however, speak of Greece “settling down gradually” and colonizing Italy, Sicily, and what is now western Turkey. This surely implies that Greece was settling down after something.) Thucydides does indeed display sound knowledge of the series of migrations by which Greece was resettled in the post-Mycenaean period. The most famous of these was the “ Dorian invasion,” which the Greeks called, or connected with, the legendary “return of the descendants of Heracles.” Although much about that invasion is problematic—it left little or no archaeological trace at the point in time where tradition puts it—the problems are of no concern here. Important for the understanding of the Archaic and Classical periods, however, is the powerful belief in Dorianism as a linguistic and religious concept. Thucydides casually but significantly mentions soldiers speaking the “Doric dialect” in a narrative about ordinary military matters in the year 426. That is a surprisingly abstract way of looking at the subdivisions of the Greeks, because it would have been more natural for a 5th-century Greek to identify soldiers by home cities. Equally important to the understanding of this period is the hostility to Dorians, usually on the part of Ionians, another linguistic and religious subgroup, whose most-famous city was Athens. So extreme was this hostility that Dorians were prohibited from entering Ionian sanctuaries; extant today is a 5th-century example of such a prohibition, an inscription from the island of Paros. Dodds, E. R. (1964). The Greeks and the Irrational. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. The Huns were a nomadic people who formed a large state in Eastern Europe by about AD 400, and under their leader Attila, they fought against both sections of the Roman Empire. However, after Attila's death, the state fell apart and the Huns’ influence in history disappeared. [166] The Hun-Xiongnu connection is controversial at best and is often disputed but is also not completely discredited. [167] [168] The Archaic expansion differed from the Iron Age migrations of the Greek Dark Ages, in that it consisted of organised direction (see oikistes) away from the originating metropolis rather than the simplistic movement of tribes, which characterised the aforementioned earlier migrations. Many colonies, or apoikia ( Greek: ἀποικία, transl. "home away from home"), that were founded during this period eventually evolved into strong Greek city-states, functioning independently of their metropolis. Iron Age Italy [ edit ] Etruscan civilization in north of Italy, 800 BCSchmidt, P.; Avery, D.H. (1978). "Complex iron smelting and prehistoric culture in Tanzania". Science. 201 (4361): 1085–89. Bibcode:1978Sci...201.1085S. doi:10.1126/science.201.4361.1085. PMID 17830304. S2CID 37926350 BC – 300 AD: The earliest Bantu settlements in the Swahili coast appear on the archaeological record in Kwale County in Kenya, Misasa in Tanzania and Ras Hafun in Somalia. [22] The kingdom of Magadha rose to prominence under a number of dynasties that peaked in power under the reign of Ashoka Maurya, one of India's most legendary and famous emperors. During the reign of Ashoka, the four dynasties of Chola, Chera, and Pandya were ruling in the South, while Devanampiya Tissa (250–210 BC) controlled Anuradhapura (now Sri Lanka). These kingdoms, while not part of Ashoka's empire, were in friendly terms with the Maurya Empire. An alliance existed between Devanampiya Tissa and Ashoka of India, [95] who sent Buddhist missionaries to Sri Lanka. [96]

MacGregor, Neil (2011). A History of the World in 100 Objects. New York: Viking. pp.221–226. ISBN 9780670022700.

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Stager, Lawrence E. (1998). "Forging an Identity: The Emergence of Ancient Israel". In Coogan, Michael D. (ed.). The Oxford History of the Biblical World. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-513937-2. Boardman, John; Hammond, N. G. L., eds. (1970). "Preface". The Cambridge Ancient History Volume III, Part 3: The Expansion of the Greek World, Eighth to Sixth Centuries B.C. ISBN 978-0-521-23447-4. Kinzl, Konrad H. (1998). Directory of Ancient Historians in the USA, 2nd ed. Claremont, Calif.: Regina Books. ISBN 978-0-941690-87-4. Archived from the original on 15 February 2010 . Retrieved 24 February 2008. Web edition is constantly updated. BC: Earliest theorized date for birth of Jesus of Nazareth. Roman succession: Gaius Caesar and Lucius Caesar groomed for the throne. c. 512 BC: Darius I (Darius the Great) of Persia, subjugates eastern Thrace, Macedonia submits voluntarily, and annexes the Libyan Kingdom, Persian Empire at largest extent.