My Living World LW101 Interplay ANT World, Single, Mixed

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Helanterä, Heikki; Strassmann, Joan E.; Carrillo, Juli; Queller, David C. (2009). "Unicolonial ants: where do they come from, what are they and where are they going?". Trends in Ecology & Evolution. 24 (6): 341–349. doi: 10.1016/j.tree.2009.01.013. PMID 19328589.

There are many types of carpenter ants throughout the U.S., measuring in size from one-quarter inch (about the width of a pencil) for a worker carpenter ant to three-quarters of an inch (about the size of a quarter) for a queen carpenter ant. Read on for more fun carpenter ant facts for kids. Mlot NJ, Tovey CA, Hu DL (May 2011). "Fire ants self-assemble into waterproof rafts to survive floods". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 108 (19): 7669–7673. Bibcode: 2011PNAS..108.7669M. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1016658108. PMC 3093451. PMID 21518911.Dejean A, Solano PJ, Ayroles J, Corbara B, Orivel J (April 2005). "Insect behaviour: arboreal ants build traps to capture prey". Nature. 434 (7036): 973. Bibcode: 2005Natur.434..973D. doi: 10.1038/434973a. PMID 15846335. S2CID 4428574. During the Cretaceous period, a few species of primitive ants ranged widely on the Laurasian supercontinent (the Northern Hemisphere). Their representation in the fossil record is poor, in comparison to the populations of other insects, representing only about 1% of fossil evidence of insects in the era. Ants became dominant after adaptive radiation at the beginning of the Paleogene period. By the Oligocene and Miocene, ants had come to represent 20–40% of all insects found in major fossil deposits. Of the species that lived in the Eocene epoch, around one in 10 genera survive to the present. Genera surviving today comprise 56% of the genera in Baltic amber fossils (early Oligocene), and 92% of the genera in Dominican amber fossils (apparently early Miocene). [14] [18] Roces F, Hölldobler B (1996). "Use of stridulation in foraging leaf-cutting ants: Mechanical support during cutting or short-range recruitment signal?". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 39 (5): 293–299. doi: 10.1007/s002650050292. S2CID 32884747.

Franks NR, Hölldobler B (1987). "Sexual competition during colony reproduction in army ants". Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 30 (3): 229–243. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8312.1987.tb00298.x. Robson SK, Kohout RJ (2005). "Evolution of nest-weaving behaviour in arboreal nesting ants of the genus Polyrhachis Fr. Smith (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)". Australian Journal of Entomology. 44 (2): 164–169. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-6055.2005.00462.x.

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Deen MY (1990). "Islamic Environmental Ethics, Law, and Society" (PDF). In Engel JR, Engel JG (eds.). Ethics of Environment and Development. Bellhaven Press, London. Archived from the original (PDF) on 14 July 2011. A conflict between the sexes of a species is seen in some species of ants with these reproducers apparently competing to produce offspring that are as closely related to them as possible. The most extreme form involves the production of clonal offspring. An extreme of sexual conflict is seen in Wasmannia auropunctata, where the queens produce diploid daughters by thelytokous parthenogenesis and males produce clones by a process whereby a diploid egg loses its maternal contribution to produce haploid males who are clones of the father. [146] Relationships with other organisms The spider Myrmarachne plataleoides (female shown) mimics weaver ants to avoid predators.

Weaver ant ( Oecophylla spp.) workers build nests in trees by attaching leaves together, first pulling them together with bridges of workers and then inducing their larvae to produce silk as they are moved along the leaf edges. Similar forms of nest construction are seen in some species of Polyrhachis. [112] Ant bridgeAgosti D, Majer JD, Alonso JE, Schultz TR, eds. (2000). Ants: Standard methods for measuring and monitoring biodiversity. Smithsonian Institution Press . Retrieved 13 December 2015.

Most ants are predatory and some prey on and obtain food from other social insects including other ants. Some species specialise in preying on termites ( Megaponera and Termitopone) while a few Cerapachyinae prey on other ants. [121] Some termites, including Nasutitermes corniger, form associations with certain ant species to keep away predatory ant species. [175] The tropical wasp Mischocyttarus drewseni coats the pedicel of its nest with an ant-repellent chemical. [176] It is suggested that many tropical wasps may build their nests in trees and cover them to protect themselves from ants. Other wasps, such as A. multipicta, defend against ants by blasting them off the nest with bursts of wing buzzing. [177] Stingless bees ( Trigona and Melipona) use chemical defences against ants. [121]

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Many plant species have seeds that are adapted for dispersal by ants. [166] Seed dispersal by ants or myrmecochory is widespread, and new estimates suggest that nearly 9% of all plant species may have such ant associations. [167] [166] Often, seed-dispersing ants perform directed dispersal, depositing the seeds in locations that increase the likelihood of seed survival to reproduction. [168] Some plants in arid, fire-prone systems are particularly dependent on ants for their survival and dispersal as the seeds are transported to safety below the ground. [169] Many ant-dispersed seeds have special external structures, elaiosomes, that are sought after by ants as food. [170] Ants can substantially alter rate of decomposition and nutrient cycling in their nest. [171] [172]By myrmecochory and modification of soil conditions they substantially alter vegetation and nutrient cycling in surrounding ecosystem. [173]