As already mentioned, sleep is proposed to serve a function opposing wakefulness, i.e., to maintain homeostasis in relation to energy expenditure, restoration of key cellular components, or plasticity [ 75]. Recent findings point to a more specific functional process. While neurotoxic waste products accumulate during wakefulness, an increase of cortical interstitial space was observed during sleep. This resulted in a striking increase in the convective exchange between cerebrospinal fluid and interstitial fluid, leading to metabolite clearance [ 98]. These findings in adult mice may be even more important during development when energy consumption is increased, and the accumulation of neurotoxic products is conceivably higher. Thus, it might be of interest to explore the effect of sleep on interstitial space during a period with maximal synaptic density and energy expenditure. Webb WB, Agnew Jr HW. Sleep cycling within twenty-four hour periods. J Exp Psychol. 1967;74(2):158–60.

Sleep renormalizes synaptic strength and shapes plastic brain processes. This synaptic renormalization leads to sleep-dependent improvement of brain functioning and performance [ 76]. Craig A, Ling Luo N, Beardsley DJ, Wingate-Pearse N, Walker DW, Hohimer AR, et al. Quantitative analysis of perinatal rodent oligodendrocyte lineage progression and its correlation with human. Exp Neurol. 2003;181(2):231–40. Bellesi M, Pfister-Genskow M, Maret S, Keles S, Tononi G, Cirelli C. Effects of sleep and wake on oligodendrocytes and their precursors. J Neurosci: Off J Soc Neurosci. 2013;33(36):14288–300. Using translating ribosome affinity purification combined with microarray analysis in mice, this research shows sleep-specific proliferation of oligodendrocyte precursor cells and phospholipid synthesis. Implications are that the mechanisms associated with myelination may preferentially occur during sleep.Jenni OG, Borbely AA, Achermann P. Development of the nocturnal sleep electroencephalogram in human infants. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2004;286(3):R528–38. The main trademark of cortical development is a combination of expansion and regression. The number of synapses in children exceeds adult levels [ 34], as many more synaptic connections are produced than will finally be retained [ 35]. Neuronal refinement includes the removal of neurons and synapses that fail to make appropriate connections, which ensures the establishment of proper connectivity [ 36]. Although such regressive processes are most frequent during brain development in early life, they continue to a lesser extent throughout the first two decades of life. The ultimate sex-positive manifesto will show you how to reclaim and pursue your sexual desires, sensuality, autonomy, and pleasure. By breaking down taboos, rejecting shame, and refusing repression, we can all harness the power of sexual freedom and start enjoying the – sex – life we’ve always dreamt of.

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Chcesz zadbać o swoje zdrowie? Wzmocnić odporność lub dostarczyć organizmowi potrzebne witaminy? Postaw na produkty marki Olini. Carskadon MA, Acebo C, Jenni OG. Regulation of adolescent sleep: implications for behavior. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2004;1021:276–91. Crowley SJ, Acebo C, Fallone G, Carskadon MA. Estimating dim light melatonin onset (DLMO) phase in adolescents using summer or school-year sleep/wake schedules. Sleep. 2006;29(12):1632–41. Wong KY, Dunn FA, Graham DM, Berson DM. Synaptic influences on rat ganglion-cell photoreceptors. J Physiol. 2007;582(Pt 1):279–96. Khazipov R, Esclapez M, Caillard O, Bernard C, Khalilov I, Tyzio R, et al. Early development of neuronal activity in the primate hippocampus in utero. J Neurosci: Off J Soc Neurosci. 2001;21(24):9770–81.

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Hemmi MH, Wolke D, Schneider S. Associations between problems with crying, sleeping and/or feeding in infancy and long-term behavioural outcomes in childhood: a meta-analysis. Arch Dis Child. 2011;96(7):622–9. Deoni SC, Dean 3rd DC, O’Muircheartaigh J, Dirks H, Jerskey BA. Investigating white matter development in infancy and early childhood using myelin water faction and relaxation time mapping. Neuroimage. 2012;63(3):1038–53. Simola P, Liukkonen K, Pitkaranta A, Pirinen T, Aronen ET. Psychosocial and somatic outcomes of sleep problems in children: a 4-year follow-up study. Child Care Health Dev. 2014;40(1):60–7.Harris JJ, Reynell C, Attwell D. The physiology of developmental changes in BOLD functional imaging signals. Dev Cogn Neurosci. 2011;1(3):199–216. Romijn HJ, Hofman MA, Gramsbergen A. At what age is the developing cerebral cortex of the rat comparable to that of the full-term newborn human baby? Early Hum Dev. 1991;26(1):61–7. The homeostatic regulation of sleep is developed by P24 in rats, as shown in a maximum of SWA at light onset and a reduction thereafter [ 21]. Also, prolonged waking elicits an increase in SWA in rats by this age, while younger rats show a compensatory increase in sleep duration instead of increased SWA [ 22]. In mice, SWA increases during recovery sleep only after P24, while a decline in SWA across baseline sleep and an increase during waking is already apparent at P19 [ 23]. Jenni OG, Achermann P, Carskadon MA. Homeostatic sleep regulation in adolescents. Sleep. 2005;28(11):1446–54.