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Chang, C. Y., Esber, G. R., Marrero-Garcia, Y., Yau, H. J., Bonci, A., & Schoenbaum, G. (2016). Brief optogenetic inhibition of dopamine neurons mimics endogenous negative reward prediction errors. Nature Neuroscience, 19(1), 111–116. doi:10.1038/nn.4191. Amato D, Milella MS, Badiani A, Nencini P (2006) Compulsive-like effects of repeated administration of quinpirole on drinking behavior in rats. Behav Brain Res 172:1–13 Cancellation your Service may cause the loss of Content, features, or capacity of your Account. The Company does not accept any liability for such loss. 13. Indemnity. Cardinal RN, Aitken MRF (2006) ANOVA for the behavioural sciences researcher. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., London

Flagel SB, Akil H, Robinson TE (2009) Individual differences in the attribution of incentive salience to reward-related cues: implications for addiction. Neuropharmacology 56(Supp 1):139–148 Parkinson JA, Dalley JW, Cardinal RN, Bamford A, Fehnert B, Lachenal G, Rudarakanchana N, Halkerston KM, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (2002) Nucleus accumbens dopamine depletion impairs both acquisition and performance of appetitive Pavlovian approach behaviour: implications for mesoaccumbens dopamine function. Behav Brain Res 137:149–163. [ PubMed] [ Google Scholar] On the day following saline injections, rats were given a test session in extinction. The test session was identical to the training sessions, except it consisted of only 20 trials and no rewards were delivered. Finally, rats were given a sucrose consumption test 1–3 h after completion of the test session, consisting of 20 min of access to 20 mL of 10% sucrose in their home cages. Data Analysis Cardinal RN, Parkinson JA, Lachenal G, Halkerston KM, Rudarakanchana N, Hall J, Morrison CH, Howes SR, Robbins TW, Everitt BJ (2002) Effects of selective excitotoxic lesions of the nucleus accumbens core, anterior cingulate cortex, and central nucleus of the amygdala on autoshaping performance in rats. Behav Neurosci 116:553–567. [ PubMed] [ Google Scholar]Syed EC, Grima LL, Magill PJ, Bogacz R, Brown P, Walton ME (2016) Action initiation shapes mesolimbic dopamine encoding of future rewards. Nat Neurosci 19:34–36. 10.1038/nn.4187 [ PMC free article] [ PubMed] [ CrossRef] [ Google Scholar] Guitart-Masip M, Chowdhury R, Sharot T, Dayan P, Duzel E, Dolan RJ (2012) Action controls dopaminergic enhancement of reward representations. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109:7511–7516. 10.1073/pnas.1202229109 Tomie A (1996) Locating reward cue at response manipulandum (CAM) induces symptoms of drug abuse. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 20:505–535 Mascia P, Neugebauer NM, Brown J, Bubula N, Nesbitt KM, Kennedy RT, Vezina P (2018) Exposure to conditions of uncertainty promotes the pursuit of amphetamine. Neuropsychopharmacology 44:274–280

Kapur, S., Mizrahi, R., & Li, M. (2005). From dopamine to salience to psychosis—linking biology, pharmacology and phenomenology of psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 79(1), 59–68. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2005.01.003. It’s important to recognize that ST is persistent and resistant to extinction (see “Extinction” section below). This means that ST horses will continue to approach and bump the person, even when the she doesn’t have food, because the person has become a motivational magnet. Secondly, we employed an ancillary stimulus—a 1 s auditory tone—that coincided with the delivery of reward. We found that this stimulus facilitated training by (presumably) helping rats understand the temporal connection between CS offset and reward delivery; but it is possible that the tone increased the salience of the reward delivery event, helping to enhance the receptacle-reward association at the expense of the CS-reward association. Alternatively, or in addition, the tone might have taken on some of the incentive salience that would otherwise have been credited to the lever, thereby reducing lever-focused behavior. Pingault, J. B., Cote, S. M., Galera, C., Genolini, C., Falissard, B., Vitaro, F., & Tremblay, R. E. (2013). Childhood trajectories of inattention, hyperactivity and oppositional behaviors and prediction of substance abuse/dependence: a 15-year longitudinal population-based study. Molecular Psychiatry, 18(7), 806–812. doi:10.1038/mp.2012.87.Meyer PJ, Lovic V, Saunders BT, Yager LM, Flagel SB, Morrow JD, Robinson TE (2012) Quantifying individual variation in the propensity to attribute incentive salience to reward cues. PLoS One 7:e38987. 10.1371/journal.pone.0038987 Boakes RA (1977) Performance on learning to associate a stimulus with positive reinforcement In: Operant-Pavlovian interactions (Davis H, Hurwitz HMB, eds), pp 67–97. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [ Google Scholar] Content that impersonates any person or entity or otherwise misrepresents your affiliation with a person or entity; Consistent with prior studies using both Pavlovian tasks ( Day et al., 2006) and instrumental tasks ( McGinty et al., 2013), we found that a large proportion of NAc neurons (averaging ∼58%) exhibit excitatory responses to cues that are associated with reward. These cue-evoked excitations have been shown to encode the vigor of subsequent locomotor responses, e.g., approach to a reward-associated lever, including such factors as latency and speed, as well as the probability that a behavioral response will occur at all ( McGinty et al., 2013; Morrison and Nicola, 2014; Morrison et al., 2017). Interestingly, this encoding is much more prominent during tasks that require taxic approach – i.e., in which the cue elicits a novel action sequence – rather than praxic approach, in which the cue elicits one of a limited subset of possible actions ( McGinty et al., 2013). Indeed, NAc activity, as well as dopaminergic function, is specifically required for taxic but not praxic approach tasks ( Nicola, 2010). The relationship between cells that are modulated by latency to how they are modulated by extinction learning is excellent, but the same relationship is not as well explored for other sections of the results. It would be nice to flesh that out.

Dalley JW, Lääne K, Theobald DE, Armstrong HC, Corlett PR, Chudasama Y, Robbins TW (2005) Time-limited modulation of appetitive Pavlovian memory by D1 and NMDA receptors in the nucleus accumbens. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:6189–6194. 10.1073/pnas.0502080102 Salamone, J. D., & Correa, M. (2012). The mysterious motivational functions of mesolimbic dopamine. Neuron, 76(3), 470–485. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2012.10.021.

The first message is sent when the parcel is scanned at the Delivery Office to inform the recipient that Royal Mail will attempt to deliver the parcel that day. is the learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has attained predictive (and sometimes incentive motivational) properties as a result of Pavlovian conditioning. Conditional stimulus (CS)

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