As a biodegradable polysaccharide, κCar has excellent film-forming features [ 17, 18]. However, similar to most polysaccharide-based films, plain κCar films have some limitations due to their inherent hydrophilic nature that negatively affects their mechanical and water barrier properties as compared with normal synthetic polymers [ 19]. Numerous physical and chemical techniques have been developed to obtain desirable film properties. Blending with polymers [ 20], reinforcing with nanomaterials [ 21], or layering with other polymer films [ 22] can remarkably enhance the film properties of carrageenans. Asni A. (2021). Analysis on carrageenan content of seaweed Kappaphycus alvarezii at different water condition in Bantaeng District. IOP Conf. Series Earth Environ. Sci. 860:012069. doi: 10.1088/1755-1315/860/1/012069 [ CrossRef] [ Google Scholar] David, Shlomit; Shani Levi, Carmit; Fahoum, Lulu; Ungar, Yael; Meyron-Holtz, Esther G.; Shpigelman, Avi; Lesmes, Uri (2018-03-01). "Revisiting the carrageenan controversy: Do we really understand the digestive fate and safety of carrageenan in our foods?". Food & Function. 9 (3): 1344–1352. doi: 10.1039/c7fo01721a. ISSN 2042-6496. PMID 29469913. The three essential steps of carrageenan extraction using the UAE method are algae pretreatment, carrageenan extraction, and carrageenan purification ( Youssouf et al., 2017). The pretreatment process was started by incubating dried seaweed ( K. alvarezii) in an 80% ethanol solution at room temperature overnight. The pre-treated seaweed was then filtered before being subjected to an ultrasound at 150W for 15min to extract the carrageenan. The movement of ultrasonic waves mediates the extraction process, which results in the transformation of ultrasonic waves into mechanical energy. This mechanical energy then ruptures the cell wall, reducing particle size as a result of the rupture and releasing the carrageenan from the cell wall ( Nigam et al., 2022). Following the extraction process, the carrageenan was available in the form of a solution, and any remaining algal residues were removed using a hot filtering process. It was necessary to place the filter at 4°C for several hours to obtain carrageenan extract in the form of a gel, and gel carrageenan was frozen and lyophilized to obtain the final carrageenan powder ( Youssouf et al., 2017). Ultrasounds allowed for the extraction of 50–55% of carrageenans from red seaweeds such as K. alvarezii and E. denticulatum in 15min, and a longer ultrasonic treatment (30min) may not result in a higher extraction yield ( Youssouf et al., 2017; Azis, 2019). Factors Affecting Carrageenan Yield and Production

Dietary Information: Suitable for Vegans, Vegetarians & Ovo- Lacto Vegetarians, Non-GMO, Gluten-free, Non-Irradiated. Montaño, Marco Nemesio (16 September 2004). "Gelatin, gulaman, 'JellyAce,' atbp". PhilStar Global . Retrieved 10 February 2021. Research Unit, Faculty of Science and Natural Resources, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia

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European Food Safety Authority, FSA ANS Panel (EFSA Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to Food), 2018 Search PubMed; M. Younes, P. Aggett and F. Aguilar, Yegappan R, Selvaprithiviraj V, Amirthalingam S, Jayakumar R (2018) Carrageenan based hydrogels for drug delivery, tissue engineering and wound healing. Carbohydr Polym 198:385–400 Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Evaluation of the health aspects of carrageenan as a food ingredient, 1973, PB-266–877 Search PubMed.

a b McHugh, Dennis J. (2003). "A guide to the seaweed industry: FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 441". www.fao.org. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations . Retrieved 2017-07-29. Zuldin WH, Yassir S, Shapawi R (2016) Growth and biochemical composition of Kappaphycus (Rhodophyta) in customized tank culture system. J Appl Phycol 28:2453–2458 The three types of carrageenan — kappa, iota, and lambda — vary in sulfation, which affects their functional properties. The alkali solution used in both the RC and SRC extraction procedures is intended to improve polysaccharide extraction and accelerate 6-sulfate removal from the monomer form 3,6-anhydro-D-galactose, thereby increasing gel strength and product reactivity on the protein (Corp, 1977). Apart from dissolving the carrageenans, the alkaline solution also transforms the biological precursors υ-carrageenan and μ-carrageenan into usable κ-carrageenan and ι-carrageenan, respectively. A cost comparison of SRC and RC technology reveals that the SRC extraction method is less expensive than the RC extraction process because carrageenan precipitation and solvent recovery costs are avoided in the SRC extraction process. However, when compared to the RC, the extracted primary product of the SRC process is of lower quality and is referred to as seaweed flour or alkali modified flour, with the SRC being unsuitable for human food application but designed for pet food production because of the flour is colored and often has a high bacterial population ( Rhein-Knudsen et al., 2015). On the other hand, the RC is of higher quality and is referred to as raw carrageenan ( Ortiz-Tena et al., 2017). Despite the benefits of alkali treatment, the procedure invariably results in some polysaccharide degradation due to the stresses of the processing environment (heat, alkalinity; Stanley, 1990). It is also possible that a higher concentration of sodium hydroxide will promote carrageenan depolymerization ( Varadarajan et al., 2009). Enzyme-Based Extraction Method Carrageenan has established itself as a polysaccharide with numerous applications ranging from food to pharmaceuticals. Carrageenan is primarily derived from the red algae K. alvarezii, which is the commercial variety of choice due to its rapid growth and low production cost in tropical coastal waters around the world. Carrageenan is synthesized through a series of complex biochemical pathways primarily catalyzed by sulfotransferases and galactosyltransferases and their derivate enzymes. Carrageenan’s chemical and rheological properties are altered by the addition of sulfate ester groups and anhydrogalactose, which alters its gelling and viscosity properties. Because of its desirable gelling properties, κ-carrageenan is particularly useful for industrial purposes. Carrageenan can be extracted using strong alkalies or through enzymatic hydrolysis with cellulases; however, the latter method is not currently commercially viable in an industrial setting. The production of Kappaphycus seaweeds is influenced by both biotic and abiotic factors, and the emergence of new pathogens is cause for concern, emphasizing the importance of disease-tolerant strain selection. Global warming and climate change have been shown to have a direct effect on ocean acidity, while eutrophication caused by terrestrial runoff has also been shown to have a direct effect on productivity. Aside from carrageenan, research is becoming increasingly important for identifying clinically important biomolecules as potential substitutes for current pharmaceutical drugs. The emergence of the oceans as the next frontier in agriculture will ensure that carragenophytes remain on the scientific horizon as an economically and environmentally viable option for humanity’s future. Author ContributionsThe viscosity of κCar solution at 75 °C was determined using a Brookfield DV-C Viscometer operating at 50 rpm with spindle #62. (Brookfield, Middleboro, MA, USA). In brief, 1.5% ( w/ v) κCar solution (in distilled water) was prepared by boiling in a microwave oven for 8 min. The hot solution was then placed in a 75 °C water bath pot insulated for 30 min [ 51]. Apparent viscosity was measured using a Brookfield Synchrolectric Viscometer (USA) as described by Zhao et al. [ 52]. All three carrageenan forms have stabilizing properties in the presence of casein and whey protein. Variations in transparency occur due to the penetration, refraction, and reflection of light at different intensities when irradiating different solutions. Transparency affects product quality, properties, and uses. Carrageenan with high transparency is widely used. Highly transparent carrageenan film for observational experiments can be prepared by mixing with glycerol. As shown in Table 1, the transparency of MC increased remarkably from 81.9% to 91.6% by 11.8% with the increase in DS. The results could be explained as follows: the introduction of MAH groups prevented the carrageenan molecules from binding to each other and the formation of the double helix structure, thus allowing light to penetrate easily [ 37].

The primary differences that influence the properties of kappa, iota, and lambda carrageenan are the number and position of the ester sulfate groups on the repeating galactose units. Higher levels of ester sulfate lower the solubility temperature of the carrageenan and produce lower strength gels, or contribute to gel inhibition (lambda carrageenan). The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. Publisher’s Note Safety Evaluation of Certain Food Additives, 3. Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives, WHO Food Additive Series: 70. 2015. hdl: 10665/171781. ISBN 9789241660709.

Factors Affecting Carrageenan Yield and Production

The presence of epiphytes in seaweed production is a common occurrence, but they can become a significant issue that reduces seaweed productivity ( Lüning and Pang, 2003; Vairappan, 2006; Hurtado et al., 2007). Sargassum polycystum is one of the most common epiphytes attached to seaweed thalli, exacerbating biomass loss in coastal farms ( Aslan et al., 2020). Several other epiphytes isolated from the K. alvarezii seaweed included Entheromorpha intestinalis, Ceramium sp., Neosiphonia apiculata, Chaetomorpha crassa, Hypnea sp., and Gracilaria sp. ( Mulyaningrum et al., 2019). It has been demonstrated that epiphytes cover the surface of seaweed thalli, considerably reducing nutrient absorption ( Wakibia et al., 2006; Vairappan et al., 2007). According to Aeni et al. (2019), the combined effects of “ice–ice” disease and epiphyte development decreased the growth rate during K. alvarezii cultivation in southeast Sulawesi. Mulyaningrum et al. (2019) compared healthy seaweed to infected seaweed and discovered that healthy seaweed had a higher carrageenan yield and gel strength than infected seaweed. In many cases, the epiphyte was more prevalent and occurred more frequently in conjunction with “ice–ice” disease ( Vairappan et al., 2007, 2010; Eranza et al., 2017). Iota forms soft gels in the presence of calcium ions. It is produced mainly from Eucheuma denticulatum. [10] The essential difference in the refining process is that the carrageenan is first dissolved and filtered to remove cell wall debris. The carrageenan is then precipitated from the clear solution, either by isopropyl alcohol (propan-2-ol) or by potassium chloride. [18] Mixed processing [ edit ] Yegappan, Ramanathan; Selvaprithiviraj, Vignesh; Amirthalingam, Sivashanmugam; Jayakumar, R. (October 2018). "Carrageenan based hydrogels for drug delivery, tissue engineering and wound healing". Carbohydrate Polymers. 198: 385–400. doi: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2018.06.086. PMID 30093014. S2CID 51953085.